Art History Nike of Samothrace

Nike of Samothrace was sculpted in second atomic number 6 AD during the hellenistic culture. This 8ft high sculpture was found on an island called Samothrace, north of the Aegean, and though beautifully carve, the workman is non known. It was discovered at a sanctuary in a harbor that faced the over encounter wind. It was as if the wind was blowing directly on the sculpture itself. The Nike was made to act like a count enquiry on the prow of a enchant, and though it never touchablely was on a ship, it was the obeisance of a stone ship in a temple like building.The Nike of Samothrace is greatly appreciated because of the soused force of motion, and practical qualities, as well as its symbolic references to the Hellenic culture. The Greeks decimal point has come a long way when we look at the way the Archaic/Egyptian period and Hellenistic period carved and shaped people. The Archaic and Egyptians sculpted people and clothes flat and simple. Their bodies did not twist in truth much and were pretty straight. The clothes on the people were basically ripe lines, or slits in the stone, and was not true(a)ly realistic.Comparing this to the way the Hellenistic period carved their people, they used a lot of motion and movement. there people twisted in different directions as they would in real life, and their clothes were deeply carved and looked very real. The Nike of Samothrace was carved out of marble, and accurately submits texture in the move, and the folds in the cloth. The Greek culture had empennagevas and celebrated the body and they used their knowledge to show expressive forces in their art. They used hammers and chisels to create beautiful, realistic flows on the stone, and made it look like it was actually moving.The Nike of Samothrace is a carving beautiful, voluptuous woman in a flowing dress with two large wings out stretched behind her. This statue had lost her head and arms, but is still recognizable as the Nike of supremacy. Her body movements and intricate detail of her tunic is very melodramatic as she seems to walk gracefully in a storm. The Nike was to be on the prow of a ship in the ocean, and that is toughenedly seen by the movement of her dress. You can practically see the strong winds whipping some her body as her skirt is blown behind and around her.The drapery is very graceful and strong as it is pulled in the direction of her body and one can practically see the energy in her movements. Her body is grounded by her legs as she strides forward. Her abdomen twists s dismountly as if finding balance in the wind, and her wings are aloft behind her as if she just landed in from a fierce headwind. The turn out chiton that she is wearing clings to her body as if it is wet from a hefty sea spray, billowing in the wind. Her body is proportionate, and accurately depicts the double-dyed(a) body scale of a Greek goddess.The texture in her wings, and the stuff of her garment are very life-like and pick u p light in their deep groves to make it look to a greater extent dramatic. The artist shows how he is able to carve the female body, portray realistic cloth, and convey victory and power in this statue. It is believable and relatable to the average person because of the stance in the body and the way the a strong wind would really blow around your clothes. The Nike of Victory has been resembled before in Greek art. This goddess stand for the victory over war and contests. Therefore, it was shown on Greek coins, temples, and other important objects.The Nike of Victory is seen again in the carving Nike Adjusting her Sandal on the Temple of Athena. This Winged Nike leans down to adjust her sandal as her chiton slid off her shoulder. in like manner to the Nike of Samothrace, the Nike Adjusting her Sandal has large wings to balance her pose and decorative swirls of heavy pleated fabric that clings to her body. She appears to be delicate and light just as the Nike of Samothrace. The Nik e of Victory is seen with wings, intricately carved fabric, and with the scale of the perfect body it shows divinity and creates something that would be desired.She also was the messenger that spreads the news of victory, and that is something that Greeks hold in high regards and were always trying to obtain. The dramatic regain to the Nike of Samothrace brings out fierce emotions and give the onlooker the sense of accomplishment and encouragement. It conveys many emotions as it stands tall and strong. Its formate of the perfect female body and the precise folds of the cloth in motion, relates almost exactly to the style of the three goddess on the Parthenon frieze.However, the three goddesses appear to have just woken up from a relaxing sleep. They are calm and tranquilize and reveal the restful attitude of mellow goddess on Mt. Olympus. When looking at them you feel serene and peaceful, acquire the calm feel of life as a god. The Nike of Samothrace is ostensibly very different in that aspect. This goddess is put up to go to war as her stance is fierce and ready for anything. The goddess is responding to energy and natural forces whereas the Parthenon frieze goddesses are tranquil, composed, and o not seem to be worrying about much at all. The Statue of Laocoon is a carving of Laocoon and his sons struggle against large sea serpents trying to destroy them. You can clearly see the force of motion macrocosm pulled in many different directions. With their legs pushing one way, and their arms pulling another, and then with his head cocked back, you can se the different directions his bare muscles are being strained. This statue is very dynamic and conveys an emotion of urgency and fight, just as the Nike of Samothrace does.The way the Nikes body twists and is not flat and straight, is the same as the dramatic gesture in Laocoon. The Parthenon frieze, Laocoon, Nike of Samothrace, and even the Nike Adjusting Her Sandal all show the movement in a body as it w ould in real life. The way the fabric falls and the twist in the body make the statues feel and look more real and relatable. At this time in Greek culture respect for the gods was immense. They believed the gods were heroes and took grimaces to help out obviously you would want to be in the gods favor.When carving the Nike of Samothrace, the artist made her to show the people that the gods were on their side and that they would have victory over their war and conflicts. The Nike was in the same style as all the Greek goddesses would have been, with the ideal body shape, flowing robs, and for the Nikes, large wings. She was placed in a temple to show her importance and divinity and to represent the power that Samothrace wanted to convey. She was carved to look like a real goddess, to bring victory over their sea fair, and to relate to the Greek culture just by who she was and who she cogitate too.

What Is Risk? (Report)

1Introduction 2What is gamble? 2. 1Material homo and risk 2. 2Case debate 1 allotment 2. 3Case body of work 2 sun word-painting 2. 4Risk society and Ulrich Beck (1992) 3Understanding and k directledge 3. 1Geoffrey rosaceous (1850) 3. 2Epidemiology 3. 3Uncle Norman and last psyche 5Conclusion 6References Title Risk and understanding by means of adroit fellowship and rank challenge Introduction This report will look at how modern society is a risk society, how adept familiarity is utilise to understand risk and how lay population respond. Case studies will be utilize to show how happy intimacy on understanding and managing risk is communicated.These will show how the lay person disputes risks and make decisions with divulge following the expert fellowship. The work of sociologists of Geoffrey Rose (1850) and Charlie Davison and colleagues (1991) is used to show how the lay person disputes expert knowledge by using their own all(prenominal)day knowledge and experien ce. What is risk? 2. 1 Material world and risk In modern society we live in a material world that now provides us with material goods which previous societies didnt have. However these new material goods can bring us benefits but also can bring us risks.Putting yourself, or something, at risk is putting yourself in a possible situation which would have a negative outcome. Thompson et al. did a study in 1989 on cyclists who wanted to try to manage the risk of a head injury by wearing a helmet while cycling. The results showed an 85% decrease in the risk of a head injury if a helmet was worn. However, look for by Walker (2006) concluded that if a car was to overtake a cyclist wearing a helmet, they would drive closer. Using this expert knowledge some people may chose to not wear a helmet to keep divers at bay even though with a crash the risk of a head injury would be higher. . 2 Case study allotment In 2003 Tim Jordan and his family had an allotment in Hackney in which they thought the soil was safe. Eighteen months after getting the allotment their local authority, displace them a letter telling them the soil was envenomed with arsenic and lead. The test used by the council measured the radical amount of poison in the soil using soil plugs. These samples were sent to a laboratory where the level of poison was compared to soil guidance values (Exploring Social Lives, 2009 p. 54). This was a well established tests scientists used to give rise their expert knowledge about soil and poisons.The soil was then tested in a variant way with a PBET (physiologically based extraction test). The basis of this test was to measure the level of poison in the soil that would enter the human body. The test tries to create a situation of the soil passing through the human digestive system of a two year old. This test showed that the level of poison in the soil was less then the earlier test. Both tests gave the macrocosm information about the level of poison and therefore the level of risk in gardening on that soil. But each test gave the lay person different information making it difficult for them to be certain about the risk.This case study shows that expert knowledge if not ever consistent. 2. 3 Case study 2 sun pictorial matter The sun exposure case study concentrates on Glaswegians attitude towards sun exposure whilst knowing the risks. Simon Carter conducts look for on the attitude towards sun exposure drawn from interviews and focus meetings of tourists between ages 20 35 who on a regular basis travel abroad. This research found that those involved were aware of health advice on how to protect themselves from the dangers of sun exposure and why. Glaswegians find going on holiday without a pre-holiday tan as embarrassing.The Glaswegian term peely-wally is used to describe people who are pale When youre away and the sunglasses and white legs come out Im ashamed to be Scottish its like if you see a group of peely-wally people then they a re Scottish. (Exploring Social Lives, 2009 p. 75) Even though these people knew about the risks of sun exposure they decided not to follow the advise to decrease the risk of damaging themselves due to the idea of looking healthy with a tan. This is an example of expert knowledge being disputed by the lay public because getting brown and having a tan was more important than the risk of illness in the future. . 4 Risk Society and Ulrich Beck In 1986 reactor number four of the Chernobyl nuclear power complex change integrity and released radiation causing 28 deaths and left 200 people sick with radiation (Spivak 1992). As hot material is invisible to the human eye, it was a challenge for humans to know exactly where had been affected. This meant the public who lived in the fallout zone to the radiation became reliant on the expert knowledge of the risk they were faced, open to a social process of definition (Beck, 1989, p. 88). Beck defined risk society (Exploring Social Lives, 200 9, p. 0) to describe the social preserve of risk and showed how the complex risks in society needed expert knowledge to explain them. Understanding and knowledge of risk 3. 1 Epidemiology Epidemiology is a way of understanding how illness and disease is transferred across populations by shadow how the infections move across countries. Epidemiology has also been used in understanding risk when experts have used information to work out the probability (chance) of a risk happening. Doll and Hill (1950) showed that a high dowery of people who smoked had lung cancer and so they argued that smoking was a risk.This expert knowledge is based on understanding a pattern rather than the cause of lung cancer. 3. 2 Geoffrey Rose (1850) Epidemiological research is always carried out on a whole group of people but when the risks are communicated they are aimed at the individual. Prevention paradox was defined by Geoffrey Rose (1850). It describes the situation where the solution to prevent a r isk will offer the community benefit that may not apply to each individual. Rose describes it lift out by saying that the measure that brings large benefits to the community offers little to each participating individual (Rose, 1891, p. 850). Rose uses vaccinations to describe prevention paradox. Not every pip-squeak will suffer from the illnesses prevented by vaccinations however every child will have a vaccination in order to prevent the one child that would need it. 599 wasted immunisations for the one that was effective (Rose, 1981, p. 1850). 3. 3 Lay dispute of risk Davison et al. found that people in every day life talked about health and illness. They knew people who had followed all the health advice and remedy became sick and died and other people who had not followed any of the advice and had no negative effects.This results in a font of lay epidemiology through which people dispute the expert knowledge and reinforce the experience of individuals in their common life. 4. Conclusion As society has become more complex and the public have more choices of consumer goods and go that there are risk as well as benefits in these. Many of these risks are alter to understand and so need experts to study and explain them. This has led to the risk society where expert knowledge is used to help the lay public understand the risks facing them everyday.There is evidence that the lay public disputes the expert knowledge and makes decisions not to follow advice, such as using sun protection. This is partly because expert knowledge can be contradictory with different studies showing different risks but also because the expert knowledge does not always match the individuals experience. 1295 Words Beck, U. (1989) On the way to the industrial risk-society? Outline of an argument, dissertation Eleven, vol. 23, pp. 86-103 Bromley, S. Clarke, J. Hinchliffe, S. Taylor, S (2009) Exploring Social Lives Carter, S. and Jordan, T. Chapter 2 Living with risk and risky livin g, Open University, Milton Keynes. Carter, S. (1997) Who wants to be a peelie wally? Glaswegian tourists attitudes to sun tans and sun exposure in Clift, S. and Grabowski, P. (eds) Tourism and Health Risks, Responses and Research, London, Pinter. Rose, G. (1981) Strategy of prevention lessons from cardiovascular disease, British Medical Journal, vol. 282, pp. 1847-53 Walker, I. (2006) Drivers overtaking bicyclists online, http//drainwalker. com/overtaking/overtakingprobrief. pdf (Accessed 14 April 2009)

Good Night Motel Case

When making his decision, McGregor should suppose gravely the interdict consequences that his business pull up stakesinging experience if he refuses Alwards widen to fill the motel for the devil pass nights in October, at half the room rate. If McGregor refuses, during that weekend his motel testament be at his vernacular capacitor of less than get out full. With the church building building assistance pigeonholing there, suffer half the rate, it go out be as if the motel were half-full In addition, if he refuses, McGregors reputation in the familiarity exit suffer, and he will as well as lag either future business from Alwards pigeonholing and new(prenominal) church groups, at unvarying price.Consequently, Justin McGregor should try for Alwards offer but under the avocation devil conditions one, guest service will be limited so that McGregor stop lower his be two, this is a special one- while rent that will neer happen again for Alward or bothone else. The quantitative detailors involved dictate that McGregor should take on Alwards offer for accommodations for his church group, at half the room rate, for Fri daylight and Saturday, October 26 and 27.According to the circumstances of the case, pre-2008, from October 16 to May 14, the motel was rarg alone more than a quarter full at any time while post-2008, the motels occupancy rates knock down 7 to 15 percent year round. In other words, if McGregor refuses Alwards offer, during that weekend, the motel will be at its inveterate capacity of less than quarter full. However, with the church group there, paying half the rate, it will be as if the motel were half-full Half-full is bettor than less than a quarter full, so logic dictates that McGregor moldiness(prenominal) accept Alwards offer.There will be more guests occupying solely d thoroughly at half the rate than if there were continual guests paying the constant price and filling fewer than a quarter of the motels r ooms. However, this fact inwardness that service costs and maintenance cost will be higher with Alwards group than with regular customers. In other words, with the motel being at full capacity, McGregors maintenance and change staff will be a lot busier than usual, servicing a motel at full capacity.Paying for the maintenance and showying of entirely rooms at the motel will further decrease the add of money that McGregor will make from Alwards group. In other words, in strict quantitative terms, Alwards offer is a bad root word for McGregor. However, in the underage resort community where the motel is located, quantitative factors are not everything. McGregor will suffer all sorts of negative consequences from church groups and other members of the community if he refuses Alwards offer. Therefore, the prudent thing to do is to accept Alwards offer with two conditions. The opportunity costIn fact, McGregor should accept Alwards offer but under the following two conditions on e, guest service will be limited so that McGregor can lower his costs two, this is a special one-time deal that will never happen again for Alward or anyone else. Considering that McGregor and his wife sop up the motel, which is their cite of livelihood, these two conditions are reasonable. In addition, McGregor should make sure to ask Alward to impress upon his church group that the fact they are paying half the regular motel price means that the church group will win half the regular serviceThis means that the church group guests must be clean and tidy, and they must not depend on the motels maintenance people. In theory, none of this should be a problem, particularly with a group of church people, who are supposed to be kind, understanding, cooperative, and so on. In any case, the fact that the church group will stay for only two years means that they closely promising wont make huge messes, so McGregor will not countenance to pay his cleaning crew to repair. In addition, the church group guests will probably miss most of their time during the day at the church and go to the motel mostly to sleep.All these facts are only fair to McGregor, whose livelihood depends on that motel, at a time of a weak national economy. Being a total spell (p. 3), Alward must surely understand all these facts. As a result, if I were McGregor, I would seefully explain all these facts to Alward, appeal to his sense of fairness, and ask for his cooperation. The qualitative factors that McGregor should turn have to do with Grand Bend, which is a small resort community. Refusing to intromit a church group would bring negative publicity to the advanced darkness Motel.As a result, McGregor will lose all future business (at regular prices) from Alwards church group and most likely from other church groups, besides. In fact, besides being a good man, Alward is well respected in the community (p. 3). This fact means that McGregor should do all he can to pose a good work ing relationship with Alward, who will bring more church groups in the future. If Alward asks for the half-price rate again in the future, McGregor will be in a much better place to refuse.The community people will not be as critical then (in the future, if Alward asks for the half-price deal again) as if they will be if McGregor refuses Alwards first request. In other words, the resort community is too small for McGregor to decide solely based on the numbers. Reputation is very important in such(prenominal) communities, especially when church people are concerned. They tend to travel and spread the news active which businesses are customer-centered and which are money-centered, to put the matter simply.In general, when making a decision, managers need to consider the opportunity cost, which correspond to our textual matter is the sacrifice of the best alternative for a given action. An (accounting) expense is a cost incurred to experience a revenue (p. 24). Since this is a sm all town, and the church group will stay for only two long time, the opportunity cost will bring more customers for the future. In addition, managers must consider the marginal cost, which jibe to our textbook is the cost of producing one more unit (p.28).In terms of cleaning the pool, it will not have an consummation since most of the time people will spend in the church, and the only time they will spend in the Good Night Motel is night time only for sleeping purposes. As a result, the only additional cost to accommodate the guess is the cleaning service of the rooms. In addition, McGregor must consider his fixed cost, which is a cost that does not change with an increase or decrease in the amount of goods or services produced.In the final analysis, the fact that Alward is a good man who enjoys the communitys respect and the fact that he works with churches (a central institution in small communities) mean that McGregor cant give way to refuse to work with Alward. Even if McG regor breaks even, he should still accommodate the church group. If he doesnt accommodate it, he will suffer all sorts of negative consequences loss of future business from church groups at regular price, bad publicity in a small resort community, and so on. In other words, the big picture (quantitative factors) is more important in this case.Good Night Motel CaseWhen making his decision, McGregor should consider seriously the negative consequences that his business will experience if he refuses Alwards offer to fill the motel for the two weekend nights in October, at half the room rate. If McGregor refuses, during that weekend his motel will be at his usual capacity of less than quarter full. With the church group there, paying half the rate, it will be as if the motel were half-full In addition, if he refuses, McGregors reputation in the community will suffer, and he will also lose all future business from Alwards group and other church groups, at regular price.Consequently, Justi n McGregor should accept Alwards offer but under the following two conditions one, guest service will be limited so that McGregor can lower his costs two, this is a special one-time deal that will never happen again for Alward or anyone else. The quantitative factors involved dictate that McGregor should accept Alwards offer for accommodations for his church group, at half the room rate, for Friday and Saturday, October 26 and 27.According to the facts of the case, pre-2008, from October 16 to May 14, the motel was rarely more than a quarter full at any time while post-2008, the motels occupancy rates fell 7 to 15 percent year round. In other words, if McGregor refuses Alwards offer, during that weekend, the motel will be at its usual capacity of less than quarter full. However, with the church group there, paying half the rate, it will be as if the motel were half-full Half-full is better than less than a quarter full, so logic dictates that McGregor must accept Alwards offer.There will be more guests occupying all rooms at half the rate than if there were regular guests paying the regular price and filling fewer than a quarter of the motels rooms. However, this fact means that service costs and maintenance cost will be higher with Alwards group than with regular customers. In other words, with the motel being at full capacity, McGregors maintenance and cleaning staff will be a lot busier than usual, servicing a motel at full capacity.Paying for the maintenance and cleaning of all rooms at the motel will further decrease the amount of money that McGregor will make from Alwards group. In other words, in strict quantitative terms, Alwards offer is a bad idea for McGregor. However, in the small resort community where the motel is located, quantitative factors are not everything. McGregor will suffer all sorts of negative consequences from church groups and other members of the community if he refuses Alwards offer. Therefore, the prudent thing to do is to accept Alwards offer with two conditions. The opportunity costIn fact, McGregor should accept Alwards offer but under the following two conditions one, guest service will be limited so that McGregor can lower his costs two, this is a special one-time deal that will never happen again for Alward or anyone else. Considering that McGregor and his wife run the motel, which is their source of livelihood, these two conditions are reasonable. In addition, McGregor should make sure to ask Alward to impress upon his church group that the fact they are paying half the regular motel price means that the church group will receive half the regular serviceThis means that the church group guests must be clean and tidy, and they must not depend on the motels maintenance people. In theory, none of this should be a problem, especially with a group of church people, who are supposed to be kind, understanding, cooperative, and so on. In any case, the fact that the church group will stay for only two days mea ns that they most likely wont make huge messes, so McGregor will not have to pay his cleaning crew to repair. In addition, the church group guests will probably spend most of their time during the day at the church and go to the motel mostly to sleep.All these facts are only fair to McGregor, whose livelihood depends on that motel, at a time of a weak national economy. Being a good man (p. 3), Alward must surely understand all these facts. As a result, if I were McGregor, I would respectfully explain all these facts to Alward, appeal to his sense of fairness, and ask for his cooperation. The qualitative factors that McGregor should consider have to do with Grand Bend, which is a small resort community. Refusing to accommodate a church group would bring negative publicity to the Good Night Motel.As a result, McGregor will lose all future business (at regular prices) from Alwards church group and most likely from other church groups, too. In fact, besides being a good man, Alward is w ell respected in the community (p. 3). This fact means that McGregor should do all he can to develop a good working relationship with Alward, who will bring more church groups in the future. If Alward asks for the half-price rate again in the future, McGregor will be in a much better position to refuse.The community people will not be as critical then (in the future, if Alward asks for the half-price deal again) as if they will be if McGregor refuses Alwards first request. In other words, the resort community is too small for McGregor to decide solely based on the numbers. Reputation is very important in such communities, especially when church people are concerned. They tend to travel and spread the news about which businesses are customer-centered and which are money-centered, to put the matter simply.In general, when making a decision, managers need to consider the opportunity cost, which according to our textbook is the sacrifice of the best alternative for a given action. An (a ccounting) expense is a cost incurred to generate a revenue (p. 24). Since this is a small town, and the church group will stay for only two days, the opportunity cost will bring more customers for the future. In addition, managers must consider the marginal cost, which according to our textbook is the cost of producing one more unit (p.28).In terms of cleaning the pool, it will not have an effect since most of the time people will spend in the church, and the only time they will spend in the Good Night Motel is night time only for sleeping purposes. As a result, the only additional cost to accommodate the guess is the cleaning service of the rooms. In addition, McGregor must consider his fixed cost, which is a cost that does not change with an increase or decrease in the amount of goods or services produced.In the final analysis, the fact that Alward is a good man who enjoys the communitys respect and the fact that he works with churches (a central institution in small communities) mean that McGregor cant afford to refuse to work with Alward. Even if McGregor breaks even, he should still accommodate the church group. If he doesnt accommodate it, he will suffer all sorts of negative consequences loss of future business from church groups at regular price, bad publicity in a small resort community, and so on. In other words, the big picture (quantitative factors) is more important in this case.Addendum (Computations) 30 rooms 25% occupancy 8 rooms at $80$640 The rest 22 room at $40 per room22 rooms at $ 40$880 Total Revenue$1520 Additional cleaning Expense ( student Help)2 days 10 hour at $10/hour $200.00Cleaning and laundry tag on $12,070.00 Maintenance supply and expense $11,890.00 Utility including Internet $74,850.00 Total Variable cost per year $98,810.00 Per day $270.71 For two days $541.42 $541.42 Total additional variable cost $741.42The revenue from the church guests is $880, and additional variable costs associated with accommodations is an peculiar (a) $741.42.

Exercise Physiology

Direct calorimetry uses the measurement of conflag send reapingion as an indication of metabolic rate. * In locate calorimetry enters metabolic rate via the measurement of atomic number 8 consumption. * cypher expenditure bum be explicit in Lmin-1, kcalmin-1, mlkg-1min-1, METs, and kcalkg-1hr-1. * To convert Lmin-1 to kcalmin-1, manifold by 5. 0 kcalL-1. * To convert Lmin-1 to mlkg-1min-1, multiply by one C0 and divide by body weight unit in kilograms. * To convert mlkg-1min-1 to METs or kcalkg-1hr-1, divide by 3. 5 mlkg-1min-1. Efficiency * Exercise exit rate Efficiency decreases as work rate emergences * Speed of impetus* There is an optimum speed of movement and any deviation lops efficiency * Muscle fiber compositors case * Higher efficiency in massiveness buildermans with great percentage of slow fibers SUMMARY Net efficiency is delineate as the mathematical ratio of work per doed divided by the energy expenditure above rest, and is expressed as a percentage. * The efficiency of work out decreases as the exercise work rate developments. This occurs because the relationship amid work rate and energy expenditure is curvilinear. To get through goopimal efficiency at any work rate, there is an optimal speed of movement. * Exercise efficiency is greater in subjects who possess a in high spirits percentage of slow muscle fibers comp ard to subjects with a high percentage of fast fibers.This is occurs because slow muscle fibers argon much efficient than fast fibers. * Not possible to calculate net efficiency of horizontal cart track * Running Economy * Oxygen personify of running at given speed * Lower VO2 (mlkg1min1) at same speed indicates better running economy * Gender variance * No difference at slow speeds At race pace speeds, males may be more economical that female persons 170-188 CIRCULATORY RESPONSE TO EXERCISE Organization arteries branch to form vessels, vessels become microscopic and form arterioles, which develop into b eds called capillaries. Capillaries are the smallest and most numerous of rake vesselsex heighten of group O, CO2, and nutrients. melodic line passes from capillary beds to venules that move vertebral column to mettle and add in size becoming veins. Mixed venous riptide= mixture of venous railway line from both upper and cut down body in the by rights side of the lovingness. *it represents an average of venous blood from entire body.HEART Right/left side separated by muscular wall called interventricular septum (prevents conflate blood from sides). Valves Bicuspid/mitral = left atrioventricular valve **atrioventriculars c retrogress when heart coerces to prevent back lessen. Tricuspid= right atrioventricular valve Semilunar valve (pulmonary semilunar)- b/w right ventricle and pulmonary artery. Prevents back function from arteries into ventricles. Aortic valve (aortic semilunar)= b/w left ventricle and aorta. Also prevents backflow Right side pumps deoxygenated blood to pulmonary perimeter so oxygen can be loaded and CO2 released.Left side pumps oxygenated blood to body via general tour of duty. RIGHT to lungs LEFT to body Heart sounds are ascribable to closing of atrioventricular valves (first sound-systole) and the closing of aortic and pulmonary valves (second sound-diastole) Wall of heart is 3 formed 1) outer layer is epicardium, 2) muscular middle layer called myocardium, 3) inner layer endocardium. Myocardium contracts to force blood out. Right and left coronary arteries supply myocardium cardiac muscle fibers are shorter than haggard and are branched and involuntary. Heart muscle fibers are all connected via intercalated discs- carry on electric impulses.They are leaky membranes that allow ions to cross b/w fibers (contract together= functional syncytium). *atria contract separate from ventricles because there is a separating layer of CT *heart is provided type 1, slow fiber- passing aerobic, many mitochondria (more than squandere d). Cardiac troll Systole- densification phase (blood ejected) Diastole- relaxation period (arterial BP decreases filling) There is also an atrial systole and diastole. Atrial contraction during ventricular diastole, atrial relaxation when ventricular systole. *SO there are both steps of heart pumping. *atria contract together, which empties arterial blood into ventricles. . 1 second and then ventricles contract to demonstrate blood to systemic and pulmonary circuits.*when atria relax, blood flows into them from venous circulation as they fill, ram inside gains. join on in HR less clock spent in diastole ( non as much impact on time in systole until at high HR) Arterial telephone circuit Pressure -greatest in arteries BP = the force exerted by blood against the arterial walls. Determined by how much blood is pumped and the resistance to blood flow. -male 120/80, female 110/70 systolic/diastolic dif between the two is calls pulse squelch mean arterial tweet= av pressure d uring cardiac cycle. determines rate of blood flow through systemic circuit Mean arterial pressure = DBP + . 33 (pulse pressure) (DBP diastolic blood pressure) (pulse pressure dif between systolic and diastolic pressure) SO, if any(prenominal)one has bp 120/80, Mean arterial pressure= 80mmHg + . 33(120 80) = 93 mmHg *but this calculation is only use for cardiac cycle at rest.Hypertension- affixs work load on left ventricle so cardiac troop growths, but this eventually results in diminished pumping capacity. Also increase risk for other disease/ slander of body positions comparable brain and kidneys. 20% all US adults Factors influencing arterial BP ) cardiac takingsamount of blood pumped from heart 2) total vascular resistance sum of resistance to blood flow by all systemic blood vessels. blood book of account, blood viscosity Mean arterial blood pressure = (cardiac turnout x total vascular resistance) *so increase in each will increase the mean art. BP Blood pressure increases when increase in blood plenty, HR, SV, blood viscosity, peripheral device resistance. And it decreases when any of those decrease. BP regulated short term by the sympathetic NS, long term by the kidneys (bc they falsify blood volume). Baroreceptors- sense arterial blood pressure in carotid artery and aorta.Increase in pressure send impulses to CV go everywhere bone marrow which will decrease the sympathetic activity (lowers cardiac siding and/or reduces vascular resistance lowers BP). Decrease in BP reduction of baroreceptors activity to brain CV control center increases sympathetic activity raise BP to normal Electrical Activity of the Heart Sionatrial node (SA node)- in the right atrium (by the vena cava). responsible for spontaneous electrical activity in normal heart, its the pace maker. Occurs cod to decay of resting membrane potential (bc of diffusion of NA during diastole).When SA is depolarized and reaches threshold, a wave of depolarization is spread over the atria contraction Wave of atrial depolarization call fors special semiconducting create from raw material to transport it to the ventricles. This conductive tissue is called the atrioventricular node (AV node- in floor of right atrium). When blood from atria empties into ventricles, the conductive pathways branch into smaller fibers called purkinje fibers that spread the wave of depolarization through ventricle so it can contract. Electrocardiogram ( electrocardiogram)- recording of electrical charges in myocardium during cardiac cycle. ability of hear to conduct impulses.P wave- depolarization of atria QRS complex- depolarization of ventricles and atrial repolarization(during beginning of systole, aprx . 10 seconds after Pwave) T wave- ventricular repolarization (same time as QRS, but at the beginning of diastole) CARDIAC make (Q) Q = HR X SV Regulation of heart rate -because SA node controls HR, win overs in HR involve factors influencing SA node. near influence over HR parasympathetic and sympathetic NS Parasympathetic NS- acts as braking system to slow HR utilise vagus nerve which touches SA and AV node and releases acetylcholine decrease activity of SA and AV nodes due to hyperpolarization= reduce HR. initial increase in HR during exrcise up to 100bpm is due to decrease in parasympathetic tone. sympathetic fibers use cardiac accelerator nerves to innervate both SA node and ventricles.Increase HR and myocardial contraction when they release norepinephrine. beta receptors *all beta-blocking drugs will decrease resting HR and exercise HR. CV control center regulates- pressure receptors in right atrial respond when there is change magnitude pressure by change magnitude Q to reduce the BP. Body Temp also influences HR. increase temp = increase HR Regulation of s blistery volume ) end-diastolic volume (EDV aka preload) (volume of blood at end of diastole) 2) average aortic BP 3) strength of ventricular contraction EDV- Frank and Starling, strong er contraction with higher EDV bc there is more stretch of ventricles. EDV influenced by rate of venous return to heart- more return= higher EDV. Venous return regulated by 1) venoconstriction reduced volume capacity of veins to store blood. *sympathetic control- activates organ increase HR (the parasympathetic inhibits activation decrease HR) 2) muscle pumpmuscles contract and compress veins blood pushed to heart.Venous return reduced when muscles are contracted. isometric exercise, mechanical. 3) respiratory pump- subsisting decreases pressure in chest and increases abdominal pressure so venous blood flows from abdominal into bureau and increases return. *more respiration in exercise Aortic pressure (mean arterial pressure/afterload)- to eject blood, pressure in left ventricle must be more than in the aorta. Increase in aortic pressure= decrease SV. Less afterload during exercise bc arteriole dilation reduces afterload. Circulating epinephrine-norepinephrine (increase Ca+ entry ) and direct sympathetic stimulation of heart by cardiac accelerator nerves.Increase in sympathetic stimulation of heart increases SV at any aim of EDV. HEMODYNAMICS -blood flow is in a continuous loop. Physical characteristic of blood- quiet of plasma (watery portion, contains ions/proteins/hormones) and cells (called the hematocrit RBC/platelets/WBC). Hematocrit= 42% of blood (38% in college women), the rest is plasma. RBCs are largest part of a blood cellinfluence viscosity. Anemia decreases RBC, so decreases viscosity Relationships among pressure, resistance, and flow Rate of flow is proportional to pressure difference. Inversely proportioned to resistance.Blood Flow= change in pressure/ resistance -Change in pressure is the dif between the two ends of the circulatory system -resistance due to length of vessel and viscosity, and gas constant of vessel **Blood flow increases with increase in BP or with decrease in resistance. -during exercise blood flow increases in the main due to decrease in resistance with small rise in pressure. Resistance = (length x viscosity)/ radius4 (**so radius is VERY important-vasoconstriction/vasodilation) Sources of vascular resistance -vasoconstriction/vasodilation the greatest vascular resistance in blood flow occurs in arterioles.Pg 188 196 Changes in oxygen delivery to muscle during exercise Metabolic indispensability for O2 increases so there is an increase in blood flow to muscle- increase O2 delivery by 1) increased cardiac return and 2) redistribution of blood flow from inactive organs to working skeletal muscle. Changes in cardiac output during exercise -cardiac output increases in proportion to metabolic rate for task - muckimal cardiac output decreases after 30 yrs of age mostly bc of decreased goopimal heart rate with age. Cardiac output = heart rate X stroke volume Max HR = 220 age (years)Changes in Arterial-Mixed Venous O2 content during exercise -change in arterial-mixed venous oxygen difference (a VO2 diff)during exercise. It represents the amount of O2 taken from 100 ml of blood by the tissue during 1 systemic circuit. The relationship between cardiac output (Q), a VO2 diff, and oxygen uptake is given by the Fick equation VO2 = Q X (a- VO2 diff). Fick equation VO2 is equal to the product of cardiac output and the a-VO2 diff. *SO INCREASE IN CARDIAC OUTPUT OR (a VO2 diff ) WOULD ELEVATE VO2. Redistribution of Blood Flow During ExerciseIncrease flow to skeletal muscles and decrease to less-active organs like liver, kidneys, GI tract. Increase in muscle blood flow and decrease in splanchnic blood flow change as a linear function of %VO2 max. -at rest aprx 15-20% total cardiac output is directed to skeletal muscles. -during maximum exercise 80-85% of total cardiac output goes to skeletal muscle (to help meet oxygen needs for contracting) -during heavy exercise % that goes to brain is reduced compared to rest. -total coronary blood flow increases due to increase in cardiac output -reduction of blood flow to skin and abdominal organsRegulation of local blood flow during exercise Regulated with arterioles in skeletal muscles that have a high vascular resistance at rest (due to adrenergic sympathetic stimulation which causes vasoconstriction). This results in low blood flow to muscle (4-5 ml/min per 100g muscle) but this is still 20-25% total flow from heart. **autoregulation (an intrinsic metabolic control) -vasodilation (opens vessels) results from local changes during exercise like decrease in O2 tension, increase in CO2 tension, nitric oxide, potassium and adenosine concentrations, increase in acidity.Vasodilation reduces vascular resistance and therefore increases blood flow. Also aided by recruitment of cappilaries- at rest only 5-10% of capillaries are open, all are open during heavy exercise. **level of vasodilation regulated by metabolic need of the muscle (intensity and of motor units recruited determines blood flow to active muscle fibers) during ex ercise, vascular resistance in skeletal muscle decreases and vascular resistance to flow in the visceral organs/other inactive tissue increases. *because on increased sympathetic output to these organs regulated by CV control center. increase in visceral vasoconstriction during exercise decreases blood flow to viscera by 20-30% resting value. During exercise in sincere position, SV reaches plateau at 40% VO2 max, therefore, at work rate about 40% VO2 max, the rise in cardiac output (Q) is due to increased HR only.CIRCULATORY RESPONSES TO EXERCISE HR and blood pressure at any VO2 (oxygen uptake) are higher in arm than in leg -higher HR in hot/humid conditions emotional influence- HR increase with high emotion because increase in sympathetic NS activity. Does not generally alter peak HR or blood pressure during exercise itself but does exalt pre-exercise HR. ransition from rest to exercise- increase in HR and SV and cardiac output at beginning of exercise (after maiden second ) the n if work is constant it plateaus recovery from exercise- recovery from short-term/low intensity is rapid. retrieval after exercise better in trained individuals bc their HR doesnt get as high. Recovery from long-term is slower because elevated body temp. incremental exercise- HR and cardiac output increase in direct proportion to O2 uptake. More O2 uptake = more blood flow to muscles. Plateau of cardiac output and HR at 100% VO2 max (no more hemoglobin to transport O2).The increase in HR and systolic BP results in increased workload on the heart (increased metabolic film on heart estimated by double product = HR x systolic BP) maximal exercise increases workload on heart by 500% Useful equation to tell patients with coronary artery plosive consonant how they can exercise. **cardiac output increases because decrease in vascular resistance to flow and increase in mean arterial blood pressure. Arm vs. Leg exercise- HR and BP higher in arm because greater sympathetic outflow to heart during arm work when compared to leg work.Large increase in BP for arms because of vasoconstriction in inactive muscle groups. Large muscles (legs) have more resistance vessels dialated, so there is lower peripheral resistance and lower BP (cardiac output x resistance= pressure). Intermittent exercise- (interval grooming), recovery of HR and BP depends on level of fitness, environmental conditions, and duration and intensity. Recovery not complete if the temperature is high because that increases HR. with repeated bouts of light exercise, many repetitions can be preformed. Prolonged exercise- cardiac output at constant level.SV declines while HR increases because the increase (cardiac output constant bc HR increases and balances SV decrease). Cardiovascular drift= increase in HR and decrease in SV during prolonged exercise. , it is due to rising body temp and reduction in plasma volume. Reduction in plasma volume reduces venous return to heart and thus decrease in SV REGULATION OF cardiovascular ADJUSTMENTS TO EXERCISE increase in sympathetic stimulation of heart and vasodilation of arterioles and increase resistance of vessels in less-active areas= increase cardiac output so that blood flow to muscle matches metabolic needs.Central command- CV change due to centrally generated cv motor signals **also modified by heart mechanoreceptors, muscle chemoreceptors, muscle mechanoreceptors, and pressure-sensitive receptors (baroreceptors) tuners during exercise muscle chemoreceptors- muscle metabolites (K, lactic acid, etc. ) muscle mechanoreceptors- force and speed of muscular movement baroreceptors- change in arterial BP- regulate arterial BP Page 267-269, 277-280 VO2 max = HR max X SV max X (a- vO2 dif)max STROKE VOLUME SV = End diastolic volume(EDV) End systolic volume (ESV) *EDV increase ecause increase in ventricle size/increase in venous return (preload), increase in myocardial contractility, and decrease in resistance to blood flow out of heart (afterload) End diastolic volume (EDV) Left ventricle increase with endurance training bc of volume loading during exercise blood plasma volume increases with endurance training (loss of plasma volume = decrease VO2 max in first weeks of detraining) **EDV increase with training. FRANK-STARLING MECHANISM increase stretch of ventricle = increased SV Cardiac contractility- strength of contraction when fiber length, afterload, and HR are constant.Afterload- peripheral resistance against which the ventricle contracts in order to push portion of EDV into aorta. Decrease in resistance = increase max cardiac output, SO arterial BP is unchanged (MAP = Q x TPR) **endurance training lower resistance in working muscle to facilitate higher blood flow blood pressure falls when muscles capacity for blood flow exceeds hearts ability to provide it.. to maintain BP some of muscle mass is vasoconstricted (other is vasodialated) training decrease resistance of vascular bed to match increase in max cardiac output to maintain BP Arteriovenous O2 difference increase in difference could be due to elevation of the arterial oxygen content, or decrease in the mixed venous oxygen content. -increase capacity of muscle to extract O2 after training probably because increase in capillary tightfistedness (mitochondria too) accommodate more blood flow *training-induced increase in maximal SV due to increase in preload and a decrease in afterload.Preload increased because end diastolic ventricular volume and associated increase in plasma volume. Afterload decreased because decrease in arteriolar constriction in trained muscles increases maximal muscle blood flow but no change in mean arterial BP. in young, inactive ppl, 50% of increase in VO2 is bc of increase in systemic a-VO2 dif (due to increase in capillary density). Decrease in VO2 max when you stop training because decrease in max SV and decrease in oxygen extraction. 277-280 net cost of walking is ? of net cost running use pace maker test for ki ds field test for CRF use walking, running, stepping. Can test many ppl at low cost. voteless to measure response for some, and motivation can be a variable. VO2 max estimates from all-out run tests are based on the linear relationship b/w running speed and oxygen cost of running.VO2 max estimated in endurance test is influences by CV function and % body fat. Canadian groundwork fitness test submaximal, uses lowest two 8-inch steps in a staircase. Evaluates cardiorespiratory fitness using post-exercise HR. 1 mile walk test VO2 based on age, weight, sex, time, HR improved fitness lower HR and/or time and higher VO2 max cardiorespiratory fitness measured using treadmill, cycle ergometer, stepping bench measured by palpation (carotid/radial artery), stethoscope (systolic- 1st korotkoff sound, diastolic- 4th sound), ECG ncreased metabolic demand on heart estimated by double product= HR x systolic BP -double product is estimate of myocardia O2 demand arrhythmia- irregularity in normal electrical rhythm atrial fibrillation, premature contractions conduction disturbances- depolarization is slowed/blocked (first-degree AV block or bundle branch block) myocardial ischemia- inadequate perfusion of the myocardiumflow limitation= O2 inadequateness (angina pectoris- symptom)(ST segment depression-sign upsloping, horizontal, downslopingdownsloping is worst) teady stateHR measured over 15-30 seconds post exercise HR measured for 10 seconds within first 15 seconds of stopping exercise, then multiple the by 6 HR and systolic BP increase with exercise intensity * Typical measurements obtained during a graded exercise test include heart rate, blood pressure, ECG, and rating of perceived exertion. * Specific signs (e. g. , fall in systolic pressure with an increase in work rate) and symptoms (e. g. , dizziness) are used to stop GXT. VO2 max gold standard to measure CRF VO2 increases with increasing load on a GXT until max capacity reached- VO2 estimated based on final work r ate achieved in graded exercise test- can also be estimated from HR responses to submaximal exercise using age, also adopt environmental factors.Estimation of VO2 max from last work rate Poorly fit individuals take longer to achieve the steady state at moderate/heavy work rates may overestimate the VO2 max when using formula Estimation of VO2 max from submaximal HR response HR plotted against work rate (or estimated VO2) until termination criterion of 70%- 85% of age-adjusted maximal HR reached (220-age). careful of environmental factors- dehydration, temp, emotions, medication * VO2 max Estimation of VO2 max from Last Work Rate Estimation of VO2 max from Submaximal HR Response CRITERIA FOR ACHIEVING VO2 sludge * Leveling off of VO2 with higher work rate <150 mlmin1 or <2. 1 mlkg1min1 * Post-exercise blood lactate >8 mmolesL1 * R >1. 15 * HR within 10 beatsmin1 of age-predicted maximal HR * Usefulness has been questioned * Should not expect subjects to meet all criteria * Graded Exercise Test Protocols salt mine Cycle Ergometer Step Test * Graded Exercise Tests MeasurementsHeart Rate Blood Pressure ECG Rating of Perceived Exertion Termination Criteria Treadmill- dont have to adjust for body weight in calculation because subject is carrying their own weight ( so VO2 is proportional to weight). Health or cardiac risk inventoryPAR-Q (physical activity readiness questionnaire) heart condition, pain in chest when doing physical activity, lose balance/dizziness/lose consciousness, bone/joint probs, drugs/meds for BP or heart condition * Estimating VO2 max * base on extrapolating submaximal HR during incremental test * YMCA protocol